ONE:Milling relates to metal cutting with serrated rotary cutters, and differs in many respects from either planing or turning. The movement of the cutting edges can be more rapid than with tools which act continuously, because the edges are cooled during the intervals between each cut; that is, if a milling tool has twenty teeth, any single tooth or edge acts only from a fifteenth to a twentieth part of the time; and as the cutting distance or time of cutting is rarely long enough to generate much heat, the speed of such tools may be one-half greater than for turning, drilling, or planing tools. Another distinction between milling and other tools is the perfect and rigid manner in which the cutting edges are supported; they are short and blunt, besides being usually carried on short rigid mandrils. A result of this rigid support of the tools is seen in the length of the cutting edges that can be employed, which are sometimes four inches or more in length. It is true the amount of material cut away in milling is much less than the edge movement will indicate when compared with turning or planing; yet the displacing capacity of a milling machine exceeds that of either a lathe or a planing machine. Theoretically the cutting or displacing capacity of any metal or wood cutting machine, is as the length of the edges multiplied into the speed of their cutting movement; a rule which applies very uniformly in wood cutting, and also in metal cutting within certain limits; but the strains that arise in metal cutting are so great that they may exceed all means of resisting them either in the material acted upon, or in the means of supporting tools, so that the length of cutting edges is limited. In turning chilled rolls at Pittsburg, [141] tools to six inches wide are employed, and the effect produced is as the length of the edge; but the depth of the cut is slight, and the operation is only possible because of the extreme rigidity of the pieces turned, and the tools being supported without movable joints as in common lathes. THREE:It has been already shown how Extension, having become identified with matter, took on its mechanical qualities, and was conceived as a connected series of causes or modes of motion. The parallel found by Spinoza for this series in Thought is the chain of reasons and consequents forming a410 demonstrative argument; and here he is obviously following Aristotle, who although ostensibly distinguishing between formal and efficient causes, hopelessly confounds them in the second book of his Posterior Analytics.565 We are said to understand a thing when we bring it under a general rule, and also when we discover the mechanical agency which produces it. For instance, we may know that a particular man will die, either from the fact that all men are mortal, or from the fact that he has received a fatal wound. The general rule, however, is not the cause of what will happen, but only the cause of our knowing that it will happen; and knowledge of the rule by no means carries with it a knowledge of the efficient cause; as we see in the case of gravitation and other natural forces whose modus operandi is still a complete mystery. What deceived Aristotle was partly his false analysis of the syllogism, which he interpreted as the connexion of two terms by the interposition of a middle answering to the causal nexus of two phenomena; and partly his conception of the universe as a series of concentric spheres, through which movement is transmitted from without, thus combining the two ideas of notional comprehension and mechanical causation.

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